An internet protected against quantum attacks

How far has the internet moved to encryption that quantum computers cannot easily break?

NIST finalised its first post-quantum encryption and signature standards in August 2024. Encryption that protects against future quantum attacks now covers a large share of web traffic on Cloudflare's network, which reports that over 65% of human traffic is protected. Post-quantum authentication, meaning the certificates that prove a website's identity, is still in progress. Governments have set migration deadlines running to 2030 and 2035, and embedded devices are at an early stage.

AI illustration · Illustrative scene, not a photograph of the specific device or experiment.
WHERE WE AREScaling up

Nearly here. It works and is being scaled up.

The standards are final, and post-quantum key exchange is deployed on one large network, which covers part of the web. Post-quantum authentication for certificates is still in progress, and embedded devices are at an early stage. The figure of over 65% comes from one company's network and is not a measure of the whole internet, so the stage is scaling rather than widespread.

The tech tree

Everything recorded on Vrulum that this future needs, oldest foundations at the top and the goal at the bottom. Lines show what each step requires.

What it takes: An internet protected against quantum attacks Unlocked Being researched Locked
  1. 2009Quantum key distributionPilot and early commercial Unlocked.
  2. 2018Quantum random number generatorsCommercial Unlocked.
  3. 2022Post-quantum cryptographyCommercial Unlocked.
  1. 2024Post-quantum standards finalised by NISTDone Unlocked.
  2. 2025UK migration milestones publishedDone Unlocked.
  3. 2026Post-quantum key exchange on Cloudflare's networkIn progress Being researched.
  4. 2026US federal deadlines for post-quantum migration setDone Unlocked.
  5. Date not recordedPost-quantum signatures between Cloudflare and customer origin serversIn progress Being researched.
  6. Date not recordedPost-quantum certificates for visitor connectionsNot started Locked.
  7. Date not recordedFederal high value and high impact systems migrated to post-quantumNot started Locked.
  8. Date not recordedEmbedded and constrained devices migrated to post-quantumNot started Locked.
  1. GoalAn internet protected against quantum attacksGoalRequires: Post-quantum cryptography, Quantum key distribution, Quantum random number generators, Post-quantum standards finalised by NIST, Post-quantum key exchange on Cloudflare's network, Post-quantum signatures between Cloudflare and customer origin servers, Post-quantum certificates for visitor connections, UK migration milestones published, US federal deadlines for post-quantum migration set, Federal high value and high impact systems migrated to post-quantum, Embedded and constrained devices migrated to post-quantum. Locked.

The road so far

3 of 8 steps done, 2 in progress.

  1. Done · 13 Aug 2024Post-quantum standards finalised by NIST

    NIST published its first three finalised post-quantum standards on 13 August 2024: FIPS 203 (ML-KEM) for key establishment, and FIPS 204 (ML-DSA) and FIPS 205 (SLH-DSA) for digital signatures. NIST encourages system administrators to start integrating them now, because full integration will take time. [1][2]

  2. In progress · Apr 2026Post-quantum key exchange on Cloudflare's network

    Cloudflare says over 65% of human traffic to its network is post-quantum encrypted. The post does not date the figure, so the date shown is the publication date of 7 April 2026. This covers Cloudflare's network only, not the whole internet, and the post says its work is not done until authentication is also upgraded. [6]

  3. In progressPost-quantum signatures between Cloudflare and customer origin servers

    Cloudflare's roadmap lists ML-DSA signatures for connections from Cloudflare to customer origins for mid-2026. The sources reviewed do not confirm when this was delivered. [6]

  4. Not startedPost-quantum certificates for visitor connections

    Cloudflare plans post-quantum authentication for visitor connections using Merkle Tree Certificates for mid-2027. Cloudflare also says not every browser will support post-quantum certificates. [6][7]

  5. Done · 20 Mar 2025UK migration milestones published

    The UK National Cyber Security Centre published its migration timeline on 20 March 2025. Its milestones are an initial migration plan and discovery by 2028, early, highest-priority migration activities by 2031, and completion of migration for all systems, services and products by 2035. [4]

  6. Done · 22 Jun 2026US federal deadlines for post-quantum migration set

    Executive Order 14412, signed on 22 June 2026, requires federal agencies to transition their high value assets and high impact systems to post-quantum key establishment by 31 December 2030, and to post-quantum digital signatures by 31 December 2031. The order's inventory review excludes National Security Systems, but the 2030 and 2031 deadlines do not state that exclusion. The order does not set a deadline for every system on the web. [5]

  7. Not startedFederal high value and high impact systems migrated to post-quantum

    The deadlines in the US order, 2030 for key establishment and 2031 for signatures, are still ahead. The UK milestones run to 2035. No migration of these systems has been reported in the sources reviewed. [5][4]

  8. Not startedEmbedded and constrained devices migrated to post-quantum

    Post-quantum algorithms need larger keys and signatures, which affects memory, communication overhead, processing and power on small devices. Design choices can stay locked into products for years, and product lifecycles of a decade or more make cryptographic agility important. The source is a vendor-authored article and gives no measured migration figures. [8]

Why it matters

Recorded traffic that is encrypted today could be decrypted later, once a large quantum computer exists. Moving key exchange to post-quantum methods reduces that risk for the traffic it covers. Authentication and devices with long service lives are the parts that take longest to change, so the remaining work sits there.

What stands in the way

  • Post-quantum signatures are much larger on the wire than current ones, which makes intermediate certificates and cross-signing less attractive. Cloudflare's ML-DSA post says this may push toward more root certificates distributed directly to clients.
  • Not every browser will support post-quantum certificates, so authentication cannot switch over in one step. Cloudflare says browsers, applications and origins all need to upgrade.
  • Cloudflare's ML-DSA post says some systems will have to accept a performance cost, and that compensating controls can be removed once smaller signatures arrive.
  • Moving to post-quantum signatures needs downgrade protection. Cloudflare says this may rely on PQ HSTS and/or certificate transparency, and time is also needed to disable classical cryptography.
  • Embedded and constrained devices face memory, power and processing limits, and design choices can stay locked into products for years.
  • NIST's IR 8547, on the transition to post-quantum standards, was still an initial public draft when its page was reviewed. The page gives no dated timeline, so the timeline for phasing out current public-key methods is not confirmed here.

Published forecasts

What others have predicted. These are their estimates, not ours.

WhoForecastTimeframeMade
CloudflareCloudflare targets full post-quantum security, including authentication, across its whole product suite by 2029. [6]20297 Apr 2026
UK National Cyber Security CentreThe NCSC sets 2035 as the year to complete migration to post-quantum cryptography for all systems, services and products, with an initial migration plan by 2028 and early, highest-priority activities by 2031. [4]203520 Mar 2025

Signals to watch

  • NIST publishes the final version of IR 8547 with a dated transition timeline.
  • Cloudflare reports delivery of post-quantum signatures between its network and customer origins.
  • Merkle Tree Certificates or another post-quantum certificate design deployed for visitor connections.
  • The operational guidance OMB is required to issue under the US executive order, and the cryptographic bill of materials elements that CISA and NIST are required to publish.
  • Published agency plans or progress reports against the 2030 and 2031 deadlines in the US order.
  • Post-quantum signing support in firmware of common embedded and industrial devices.

Sources

  1. government report
    NIST Releases First 3 Finalized Post-Quantum Encryption Standards
    NIST, 13 Aug 2024.
  2. standard
    Module-Lattice-Based Key-Encapsulation Mechanism Standard (FIPS 203)
    NIST, 13 Aug 2024.
  3. government report
    NIST IR 8547 (Initial Public Draft): Transition to Post-Quantum Cryptography Standards
    NIST, 12 Nov 2024.
  4. government report
    Timelines for migration to post-quantum cryptography
    UK National Cyber Security Centre, 20 Mar 2025.
  5. other
    Executive Order 14412: Securing the Nation Against Advanced Cryptographic Attacks
    American Presidency Project, UC Santa Barbara (reproduces the order), 22 Jun 2026.
  6. company announcement
    Cloudflare targets 2029 for full post-quantum security
    Cloudflare, 7 Apr 2026.
  7. company announcement
    Why we cannot wait for better post-quantum signature algorithms
    Cloudflare, 9 Jul 2026.
  8. company announcement
    Preparing Embedded Systems for the Post-Quantum Security Transition
    Brette Mullenaux (Microchip Technology). Embedded Computing Design, 8 Sept 2026.

Last reviewed 21 Oct 2026.