2D semiconductor electronicsNeuromorphic computing chips
Both explore new device materials and architectures for computing beyond conventional silicon chips.
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2D semiconductor electronicsElectronic skin
Both depend on very thin, flexible electronic components.
2D semiconductor electronicsPhotonic computing for AI
Both are alternative computing hardware paths being studied as conventional transistor scaling becomes harder.
3D-printed buildingsMetal additive manufacturing
Both build objects layer by layer and face the same question of how well the layer joins perform.
3D-printed buildingsCarbon-storing building materials
Both are new ways of making building materials and structures.
4D printingSelf-healing polymers
Shape-memory polymers can close a crack mechanically, and some self-healing approaches use a similar shape-recovery step.
4D printingMechanical metamaterials
Kim and colleagues (2018) describe a jumping metamaterial among their magnetically programmed soft material applications.
4D printingArtificial muscles (soft actuators)
Both are materials that change shape on a stimulus, but 4D-printed structures are usually passive shape changes rather than repeated force-producing actuation.
4D printingSoft robotic grippers
Magnetically or thermally responsive printed structures are one possible route to soft grippers without pneumatic lines.
202 technologies
2D semiconductor electronics
Also: 2D semiconductors, Two-dimensional semiconductor transistors, MoS2 transistorsTwo-dimensional semiconductors such as molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) form sheets only a few atoms thick and could make transistors that keep working at very small sizes. Lab devices and a small 1-bit processor have been demonstrated, but no production chips built from these materials are described in the sources reviewed here.
Advanced manufacturing · Advanced materials and metamaterials3D-printed buildings
Also: 3D concrete printing, 3DCP, 3D-printed houses3D-printed buildings are made by a large robotic printer that extrudes a concrete-like mix layer by layer to form walls. A community of 100 printed homes in Texas was reported in 2024 as nearing completion, and a printed social housing scheme in Ireland was reported as built, according to its builder's company. Most lab studies find printed concrete weaker than cast concrete, and a standard for printed walls was approved in July 2026 but is not yet known to be adopted into building codes.
Advanced manufacturing · Advanced materials and metamaterials4D printing
Also: Four-dimensional printing, Shape-changing 3D printing, Programmable printed materials4D printing makes 3D-printed objects that change shape after printing, in response to heat, water or a magnetic field. Laboratory demonstrations are well documented. The stent work described here has been tested only in cell cultures and mice.
Advanced manufacturing · Advanced materials and metamaterialsAccelerated transcranial magnetic stimulation
Also: Accelerated TMS, aTMS, SAINTAccelerated transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) gives many short sessions over about five days, and some versions target each person's brain network using a brain scan. The FDA cleared one such system, SAINT, in 2022, but most of the evidence comes from small trials and it is not yet clear how long the benefit lasts.
Neurotechnology and human augmentation · Medical technology and bioelectronicsAcoustic levitation
Also: Ultrasonic levitation, Acoustic manipulation, Mid-air acoustic manipulationAcoustic levitation uses arrays of ultrasonic emitters to form standing waves that hold and move small particles and droplets in air without touching them. Laboratory experiments have shown contact-free, three-dimensional movement of millimetre-scale objects, but the working volumes and payloads are small.
Experimental cross-disciplinary systems · Advanced materials and metamaterialsAdaptive deep brain stimulation
Also: Adaptive DBS, aDBS, Closed-loop deep brain stimulationDeep brain stimulation (DBS) uses implanted electrodes to deliver electrical pulses to deep brain areas and is established for Parkinson's disease and other movement disorders. Adaptive DBS reads a brain signal and changes stimulation as that signal changes; the FDA approved a Medtronic adaptive system for Parkinson's disease in early 2025, according to the manufacturer, while its use in depression remains experimental.
Neurotechnology and human augmentation · Medical technology and bioelectronicsAerogels
Also: Silica aerogel, Aerogel insulation, Ceramic aerogelsAerogels are extremely porous, very low-density solids made by removing the liquid from a gel while keeping its solid network intact. Silica aerogels are already used as high-performance thermal insulation and in space missions, but they are brittle and need careful drying to make.
Advanced materials and metamaterialsAgricultural spray drones
Also: Spray drones, Agricultural drones, UAV crop sprayersSpray drones are unmanned aircraft that apply crop treatments from low altitude. In the UK, HSE states there are currently no commercial authorisations for pesticide spraying by drone. Published comparisons report more spray drift than from ground sprayers, and one life-cycle study estimates lower energy use per hectare, but evidence on pesticide savings is limited.
Food and agriculture · Robotics and artificial musclesAI coding agents
Also: Coding agents, Agentic coding tools, AI coding assistantsAI coding agents are systems that read code, edit files, run tests and try again with little step-by-step human direction. Their benchmark scores are contested as a measure of real-world ability, and controlled studies of whether they speed up experienced developers give mixed, time-bound results. Security and reliability limits remain.
AI and autonomous agentsAI mathematical reasoning and theorem proving
Also: AI theorem proving, Formal theorem proving with AI, AlphaProofAI systems now solve some olympiad-level mathematics problems, including a score at gold-medal level at the 2025 International Mathematical Olympiad. Formal proof systems that check each step in the Lean language are the most rigorous of these approaches, but results on contest problems do not yet show that AI can solve open research problems.
AI and autonomous agentsAI protein structure prediction
Also: Protein structure prediction, AlphaFold, Deep-learning protein foldingAI systems can now predict the three-dimensional shape of many proteins from their amino acid sequence, often with accuracy close to experimental methods. The clearest evidence is for single proteins. Accuracy for flexible proteins, complexes and proteins with few known relatives is less well established.
Biotechnology and synthetic biology · AI and autonomous agentsAI tutors
Also: LLM tutors, AI tutoring systems, Generative AI tutorsAI tutors are chatbots built on large language models that help students learn through explanation, practice questions and feedback. Randomised trials report mixed results: some find gains, while others find no benefit or lower performance when students can simply ask for answers.
AI and autonomous agents · Experimental cross-disciplinary systemsAI weather forecasting
Also: Machine-learning weather prediction, Data-driven weather forecasting, ML weather modelsMachine-learning weather models such as GraphCast, GenCast and ECMWF's AIFS produce global forecasts in minutes. In published and operational tests they match or beat leading physics-based systems on many headline measures, but they still struggle with small-scale detail, the early growth of forecast error and physical consistency.
Experimental cross-disciplinary systems · Climate and environment · AI and autonomous agentsAI-assisted chip design
Also: Learned chip placement, AlphaChip, Machine learning for chip floorplanningAI-assisted chip design uses machine learning to place large circuit blocks on a chip and to tune the settings of design software. Google's AlphaChip and commercial tools from Synopsys and Cadence report large gains, but Google's central performance claims are disputed and the company figures have not been independently verified.
AI and autonomous agents · Advanced manufacturingAnalogue quantum simulation
Also: Analog quantum simulation, Analogue quantum simulator, Programmable quantum simulatorAnalogue quantum simulators are programmable devices, built from cold atoms, Rydberg atom arrays or trapped ions, that are tuned to behave like a chosen quantum model so that researchers can study its physics. Published experiments reach up to 256 atoms or ions and reproduce known phases of matter, while claims of practical advantage over classical computers are early and hard to verify.
Quantum technologies · Experimental cross-disciplinary systemsArtificial muscles (soft actuators)
Also: Soft actuators, Muscle-like actuators, HASEL actuatorsArtificial muscles are soft materials and devices that contract, expand or twist when given heat, electricity or fluid pressure, producing movement in a way that resembles biological muscle. Laboratory systems span heated fibres, pneumatic structures and electrohydraulic or dielectric elastomer actuators. A 2026 dielectric elastomer demonstrated large strain over repeated cycles and recovery after damage, but its repairs required hours of heating and the wider field still faces power, control, safety and scale-up constraints.
Robotics and artificial muscles · Advanced materials and metamaterialsArtificial photosynthesis
Also: Artificial leaf, Artificial leaves, Solar water splittingArtificial leaves are devices that use sunlight to split water into hydrogen and oxygen in one integrated unit. Laboratory modules have reached about 11% solar-to-hydrogen efficiency under one-sun illumination, but durability and outdoor performance at useful scale have not yet been shown.
Energy and storage · Climate and environment · Advanced materials and metamaterialsAssembly-line mass production
Also: Assembly line, Moving assembly line, Mass production lineAssembly-line production moves work past stationary workers, so each one adds a small part of the whole product. Ford introduced a moving line at its Highland Park plant in 1913, and sources credit it with cutting Model T build times sharply, though the figures and dates differ between sources.
Advanced manufacturingAsteroid mining
Also: Space resource extraction, In-situ asteroid resource utilisationAsteroid mining would take water, metals or other useful material from small bodies in space and deliver it to a customer. No asteroid extraction, processing or delivery has yet been demonstrated, although missions have collected and returned small samples.
Space and aerospace · Advanced manufacturingAsteroid sample return missions
Also: Asteroid sample return, Small-body sample return, Hayabusa2 and OSIRIS-REx sample returnAn asteroid sample return mission collects material from an asteroid in space and brings it back to Earth for laboratory study. Hayabusa2 and NASA's OSIRIS-REx have both done this, and peer-reviewed analyses of the returned material are now being published.
Space and aerospaceAtmospheric water generators
Also: Atmospheric water generator (AWG), Air-to-water machines, Water-from-air machinesAtmospheric water generators are compact machines that turn moisture in the air into drinking water, usually by chilling the air below its dew point. Energy use per litre rises in dry or cold conditions, and the performance figures checked for this profile come from a small number of studies.
Climate and environment · Experimental cross-disciplinary systemsAtmospheric water harvesting (MOF/sorbent based)
Also: Sorption-based atmospheric water harvesting, SAWH, MOF water harvestingSorbent-based atmospheric water harvesting captures water vapour in porous materials such as metal-organic frameworks, then releases it for collection as liquid water. Prototypes have operated in desert conditions, including at very low humidity, but measured output depends on sorbent mass, climate and device design. A key bottleneck is moving released vapour to a condenser cool enough to collect it.
Climate and environment · Advanced materials and metamaterialsAutonomous laboratories
Also: Self-driving laboratories, Autonomous research laboratories, Closed-loop experimental laboratoriesAutonomous laboratories combine automated instruments with software that selects or adapts experiments based on measured results. Research platforms have demonstrated this approach in catalyst discovery, nanoparticle synthesis, inorganic powder synthesis, multi-step fluidic chemistry, protein engineering, exploratory chemistry and optical-material screening. Their autonomy is bounded by human-defined objectives, selected candidate spaces, configured instruments and validation requirements; the examples do not show general-purpose laboratories that independently choose and verify any scientific question.
AI and autonomous agents · Advanced manufacturing · Biotechnology and synthetic biology · Advanced materials and metamaterialsAutonomous road vehicles
Also: Self-driving cars, Automated driving systems, RobotaxisAutonomous road vehicles do some or all of the driving without a human in control. Driverless robotaxis now operate in several US cities, and independent and company data both report fewer crashes per mile than human drivers, but the evidence covers limited areas and mileage.
AI and autonomous agents · Robotics and artificial musclesAutonomous surgical robots
Also: Autonomous robotic surgery, Autonomous laparoscopic surgery, Supervised autonomous surgical robotsAutonomous surgical robots carry out defined surgical steps, such as placing stitches, on their own after a surgeon sets up or approves the plan. Studies so far use model tissue, ex vivo tissue and a small number of pigs, and no human use is described in the sources reviewed here.
Robotics and artificial muscles · Medical technology and bioelectronicsAutonomous underwater vehicles
Also: AUVs, Ocean gliders, Argo floatsAutonomous underwater vehicles are robots that travel and measure in the ocean without a pilot on board or a cable to a ship. Argo floats, ocean gliders and under-ice vehicles now collect large amounts of ocean data, but batteries, the lack of GPS underwater and, beneath ice, the lack of any surface contact still limit how far and how long they can work.
Robotics and artificial muscles · Climate and environment · Sensors, imaging and electronic skinBase and prime gene editing
Also: Base editing, Prime editing, Base editorsBase and prime editors change individual letters of DNA, or replace short stretches, without cutting through both strands of the double helix. Clinical use is at an early stage, with published reports covering very small numbers of people.
Biotechnology and synthetic biology · Medical technology and bioelectronicsBattery-free wireless implant sensors
Also: Battery-free implant monitoring, Backscatter implant sensors, Implantable water-permeation sensorResearchers have built flexible wireless sensors that can detect water getting through the protective coating of an implant, without an onboard battery. The tests so far are laboratory, explanted tissue and post-mortem experiments, not monitoring in living patients.
Sensors, imaging and electronic skin · Medical technology and bioelectronicsBiochar
Also: Biochar carbon removal, BCRBiochar is a carbon-rich solid made by heating biomass with little or no oxygen, which can be added to soil to store carbon for a long time. Field and laboratory evidence suggests much of its carbon persists for decades or longer, but yield effects vary widely by region and soil, and credited volumes are reported inconsistently.
Climate and environment · Food and agricultureBionic limbs with nerve and bone connection
Also: Osseointegrated prostheses, Bone-anchored prostheses, Targeted muscle reinnervationArtificial arms and legs are being attached directly to bone and linked to the wearer's nerves and muscles, so they can be controlled more naturally and, in early studies, give some sense of touch. A bone-anchored system is approved in the US for some above-knee amputees, while nerve and muscle interfaces are still tested in small studies.
Neurotechnology and human augmentation · Medical technology and bioelectronics · Robotics and artificial musclesBioresorbable (transient) electronics
Also: Transient electronics, Dissolvable electronics, Biodegradable implantable electronicsBioresorbable electronics are working circuits, sensors and stimulators made from materials designed to dissolve in the body after a set time. They aim to provide temporary implants, such as short-term pacemakers or brain pressure monitors, that never need surgical removal.
Medical technology and bioelectronics · Advanced materials and metamaterialsBrain organoids
Also: Cerebral organoids, Cortical organoids, Neural organoidsBrain organoids are small three-dimensional clumps of brain-like tissue grown from human stem cells. They are used to model brain development and disease, and some have been transplanted into rat brains, but they remain small, lack blood vessels and do not yet show the learning that 'organoid intelligence' proposals describe.
Neurotechnology and human augmentation · Biotechnology and synthetic biologyBrain-computer interfaces
Also: BCI, Brain-machine interfaces, Neural interfacesBrain-computer interfaces read electrical activity from the brain and turn it into text, speech or device commands. Research teams have decoded attempted speech from implanted electrodes, and one company has tested an implant placed through blood vessels. A September 2026 study used electrodes on the brain's surface to control a virtual avatar in two of three people with paralysis. Only a small number of people have been studied in all of this work.
Neurotechnology and human augmentation · Medical technology and bioelectronicsBreath diagnostics
Also: Breath analysis, Breathomics, Electronic nose breath testBreath diagnostics looks for patterns in the volatile organic compounds (VOCs) that people breathe out, to detect disease. Lung cancer studies report high accuracy, but most are small, results differ between devices, and few breath tests have reached routine clinical use.
Medical technology and bioelectronics · Sensors, imaging and electronic skinCar electronics and engine control
Also: Automotive electronics, Engine management, Electronic fuel injectionElectronic control of engines and vehicle systems grew from Bosch's electronic fuel injection in 1967 to the software-defined vehicles discussed today. Several of these steps were prompted by emissions rules, and electronic fuel injection, engine control units, the CAN bus and OBD diagnostics are now standard in cars.
Advanced manufacturing · Sensors, imaging and electronic skinCarbon-storing building materials
Also: Carbon-storing concrete, Biochar concrete, Carbonated concreteCarbon-storing building materials add carbon-rich biochar to concrete, or cure cement-based products with CO2 so that the gas becomes solid minerals. Pilot and small field trials were reported in 2025, but whether they give a net climate benefit over a full lifecycle is not yet established.
Advanced materials and metamaterials · Climate and environment · Advanced manufacturingCatalytic converters
Also: Catalytic converter, Autocatalyst, Three-way catalystA catalytic converter is a device in a petrol car's exhaust that uses a catalyst to turn carbon monoxide, unburnt fuel and nitrogen oxides into less harmful gases. It has been fitted to new petrol cars in the United States since the mid-1970s, and it depends on lead-free petrol.
Climate and environment · Advanced materials and metamaterialsChiplets and advanced chip packaging
Also: Chiplets, Chiplet packaging, Advanced packagingChiplet designs build a processor from several smaller silicon dies joined by advanced packaging, which can make large designs easier to manufacture and reuse. The joins add cost, heat and capacity limits, and standards such as UCIe and packaging routes from TSMC and Intel are moving the approach into commercial products.
Advanced manufacturing · Photonics and optical computingClosed-loop brain stimulation for epilepsy
Also: Responsive neurostimulation, RNS System, Closed-loop neurostimulation for epilepsySome implanted devices detect programmed patterns of brain activity and respond with a short pulse of electrical stimulation. The NeuroPace RNS System was approved by the US Food and Drug Administration in November 2013. Long-term studies show seizure reductions on average, but results vary widely, and the device does not stop seizures in everyone. Most of the evidence comes from studies sponsored by the device maker.
Neurotechnology and human augmentation · Medical technology and bioelectronicsClutches, gearboxes and differentials
Also: Differential gear, Manual gearbox, SynchromeshClutches, gearboxes and differentials are the parts that connect an engine's power to the wheels and let the wheels turn at different speeds. Their history runs from a differential for a steam wagon in the 1820s to the Hydra-Matic automatic transmission of 1939, which Wikipedia describes as the first mass-produced fully automatic passenger-car transmission. Several key dates are disputed or rest on a single source.
Advanced manufacturingCochlear implants
Also: Cochlear implant, Bionic earCochlear implants are electronic devices that stimulate the auditory nerve to give a sense of sound to people with profound deafness or severe hearing loss. About 736,900 devices had been implanted worldwide by December 2019, but results vary between people and hearing in noise and music remains difficult.
Neurotechnology and human augmentation · Medical technology and bioelectronicsCommercial lunar landers
Also: CLPS landers, Commercial Lunar Payload Services landers, Private lunar landersPrivately built robotic landers now carry science and technology payloads to the Moon, mainly under NASA's Commercial Lunar Payload Services (CLPS) programme. Of the four named landing attempts reviewed here, one landed and operated for about one lunar day, two landed but tipped onto their sides, and one never landed.
Space and aerospaceCommercial space stations
Also: Commercial LEO Destinations, CLDC, Private space stationsPrivately built stations in low Earth orbit are planned to take over from the International Space Station, which NASA plans to retire around 2030. No commercial station has launched yet, and the NASA procurement that would fund follow-on work had not awarded contracts when these sources were checked.
Space and aerospaceComputer-use AI agents
Also: Computer-use agents, Computer use, GUI agentsComputer-use AI agents are models that look at screenshots and control a mouse, keyboard or browser to carry out tasks in software built for people. In the 2024 OSWorld benchmark the best model tested completed 12.24% of tasks, against a human baseline of 72.36%, and prompt injection from web content remains far from a solved problem.
AI and autonomous agentsConsumer brain-sensing wearables
Also: Consumer EEG headbands, EEG earbuds, Consumer neurotech wearablesHeadbands and earbuds sold to consumers record brain signals to estimate sleep stages. Small studies show that some of these devices agree reasonably well with lab sleep scoring for the main stages, but evidence for light sleep, clinical groups and long-term home use is thin, and some jurisdictions now treat neural data as sensitive.
Neurotechnology and human augmentation · Sensors, imaging and electronic skinCrops with boosted photosynthesis
Also: Enhanced photosynthesis, Photorespiratory bypass, Photoprotection engineeringPlant scientists are engineering crops to waste less light energy and carbon, either by recovering faster from the protective heat release that follows shade or by bypassing photorespiration. Several replicated field trials report yield or biomass gains, but the soybean yield result is disputed and no independent multi-site replication is confirmed in the sources reviewed.
Food and agriculture · Biotechnology and synthetic biologyCryonics
Also: Human cryopreservation, Postmortem cryopreservation, Cryonic preservationPostmortem preservation with the hope of future revival. No human revival has been demonstrated. A detailed article separates that speculative goal from demonstrated organ and neural-tissue research, including results published in 2025 and 2026.
Biotechnology and synthetic biology · Medical technology and bioelectronics · Neurotechnology and human augmentationCultivated meat
Also: Cell-cultivated meat, Cell-based meat, Lab-grown meatCultivated meat is produced by growing animal cells in bioreactors instead of raising whole animals. US, UK, and Australian and New Zealand regulators have started product-specific reviews, but high culture media costs and the need for structures to support thick tissue remain major hurdles.
Food and agriculture · Biotechnology and synthetic biologyDelivery drones
Also: Drone delivery, Uncrewed package delivery, UAS package deliveryDelivery drones are small uncrewed aircraft that carry parcels and urgent supplies from a hub to a customer. Companies report large delivery counts and approvals to fly beyond the operator's line of sight, but most figures come from the operators themselves. Services have been paused after crashes and software faults, and two Colorado towns have frozen new hub applications.
Robotics and artificial muscles · AI and autonomous agentsDigital twins of the Earth
Also: Climate digital twins, Earth system digital twins, Destination EarthDigital twins of the Earth are high-resolution, regularly updated simulations of the climate and weather system, built to test 'what if' scenarios and support planning. The EU's Destination Earth Climate Change Adaptation Digital Twin runs global simulations at about 5 to 10 km, and NVIDIA's Earth-2 platform adds AI emulators whose speed and energy claims come from the company and have no published benchmark.
Climate and environment · Experimental cross-disciplinary systemsDirect air capture of CO2
Also: Direct air capture, DAC, Atmospheric CO2 captureDirect air capture uses chemical sorbents to pull carbon dioxide from ambient air and concentrate it for storage. The technology is at an early commercial stage, and cost per tonne and energy use are the main open questions.
Climate and environment · Advanced materials and metamaterialsDirect-to-phone satellite messaging
Also: Direct-to-device satellite, Satellite-to-phone messaging, Direct-to-cell satelliteSome phones can now send texts and emergency messages straight to satellites when no mobile tower is in range. Emergency texting on iPhone has been in use since 2022, while broadband-style data to ordinary phones is still at an early stage and rests largely on company-reported figures.
Space and aerospace · Experimental cross-disciplinary systemsDistributed fibre-optic sensing
Also: Distributed fiber-optic sensing, Distributed acoustic sensing, DASDistributed fibre-optic sensing turns an ordinary optical fibre into a line of thousands of sensing points by reading the light scattered back along it. It can detect vibration and strain along a cable tens of kilometres long, and researchers have used existing telecom and submarine cables to monitor earthquakes and seismic activity.
Sensors, imaging and electronic skin · Photonics and optical computingDNA data storage
Also: DNA digital data storage, molecular data storage, DNA archivingDNA data storage encodes digital files in synthetic DNA sequences, then reads them with sequencing. DNA is extremely dense and can remain stable for long periods when stored well, but writing and reading remain slower and more expensive than electronic storage. In 2026, researchers reported advances in composite-letter coding and a codec tested in vitro and in living cells. These studies address parts of the system, not the cost and throughput of a complete archival service.
Biotechnology and synthetic biology · Experimental cross-disciplinary systemsDNA nanotechnology and DNA origami
Also: DNA origami, Structural DNA nanotechnology, Nucleic acid nanotechnologyDNA nanotechnology uses the way DNA strands pair up to build tiny shapes and devices. DNA origami folds one long DNA strand into a chosen shape with the help of many short 'staple' strands, and researchers have used the method to make nanoscale patterns and three-dimensional objects.
Experimental cross-disciplinary systems · Biotechnology and synthetic biologyDrought-tolerant crops
Also: Drought-tolerant maize, HB4 wheat, HB4 drought-tolerant soybeanCrop varieties bred or engineered to keep yields up when rain is short. Conventionally bred drought-tolerant maize is in use in parts of sub-Saharan Africa, while the transgenic HB4 wheat and soybean have regulatory approvals in several countries but limited evidence of farm-scale performance.
Food and agriculture · Climate and environmentElastocaloric cooling
Also: Elastocaloric refrigeration, Solid-state cooling with shape-memory alloys, Stress-driven caloric coolingElastocaloric cooling uses mechanical stress to make a shape-memory material warm and cool as its crystal structure changes. Laboratory systems have produced continuous cold air, kilowatt-scale cooling at zero temperature lift, and a small heat-driven device. The results are promising engineering demonstrations, but efficiency, fatigue life, system cost and performance under useful operating conditions remain open questions.
Energy and storage · Advanced materials and metamaterialsElectric aircraft
Also: Battery-electric aircraft, Hybrid-electric aircraft, Electric propulsion aircraftElectric aircraft drive their propellers or fans with electric motors, powered either by batteries alone or by batteries combined with a fuel-burning engine. A two-seat electric trainer is type-certified, and larger hybrid-electric demonstrators have flown, but the sources reviewed here show no airline service on regional or longer routes.
Energy and storage · Experimental cross-disciplinary systemsElectric space propulsion
Also: Electric propulsion, Ion propulsion, Ion thrustersElectric space propulsion uses electrical power, usually from solar arrays, to accelerate a gas such as xenon out of a spacecraft. It uses far less propellant than chemical rockets for the same change in speed, but its thrust is very small, so it works over months or years.
Space and aerospace · Energy and storageElectric vertical take-off and landing aircraft
Also: eVTOL aircraft, eVTOL, Electric air taxiElectric vertical take-off and landing (eVTOL) aircraft use batteries and electric motors to lift off and land vertically, with short urban air taxi trips as the main goal. Developers are in late-stage testing toward regulatory certification, but the sources reviewed here do not confirm a type certificate, and battery energy and power remain the main technical limits.
Space and aerospace · Energy and storageElectrochemical CO2 conversion
Also: CO2 electroreduction, Electrochemical CO2 reduction, CO2 electroreduction to formateElectrochemical CO2 conversion uses electricity to turn carbon dioxide into chemicals such as formate. Prototype stacks built from 1,526 cm² cells have been reported, but long-term stability, energy use and climate benefit at industrial scale are not yet shown.
Climate and environment · Energy and storageElectrolysers for low-carbon hydrogen
Also: Water electrolysers, Water electrolysis, ElectrolysersElectrolysers use electricity to split water into hydrogen and oxygen. Alkaline and proton-exchange-membrane systems are commercially available, while solid-oxide and anion-exchange-membrane designs offer different trade-offs and maturity levels. Hydrogen is only low emissions when the electricity and wider supply chain are low emissions; project announcements and electrolyser capacity do not by themselves establish climate benefit or delivered hydrogen output.
Energy and storage · Climate and environmentElectronic skin
Also: e-skin, artificial skin, skin-like electronicsElectronic skin is a family of thin, flexible or stretchable electronic sheets that sense touch, pressure, temperature or body signals in the way human skin does. Laboratory prototypes have shown pressure mapping, skin-mounted health sensing and stretchable transistor circuits. A 2026 study used soft optical waveguides to reconstruct the three-dimensional shape of a sensing sheet, but this remains a research demonstrator rather than a ready-to-wear system.
Sensors, imaging and electronic skin · Advanced materials and metamaterialsEngineered living materials
Also: ELMs, Biofabricated living materialsEngineered living materials are materials made with the help of living cells or the structures they produce. A 2024 laboratory study made a stretchable, compostable film from engineered bacterial protein fibres, but the work is at prototype stage and does not show a product that can replace plastic.
Advanced materials and metamaterials · Biotechnology and synthetic biologyEngineered living therapeutics
Also: Bacterial live therapeutics, Engineered probiotics, Live biotherapeutic productsEngineered living therapeutics use genetically modified microbes, mainly bacteria, to make a therapeutic molecule and release it near the disease site. Several candidates have reached early human studies, but the clinical evidence is small and most results still come from cell and animal experiments.
Biotechnology and synthetic biology · Medical technology and bioelectronicsEnhanced geothermal systems
Also: EGS, Engineered geothermal, Next-generation geothermalEnhanced geothermal systems (EGS) engineer flow paths through hot rock that does not let water pass easily, so that water can circulate, pick up heat and return to the surface. A 30-day circulation test at a Utah research site in 2024 was reported by the U.S. Department of Energy as positive initial evidence, but long-term heat output and induced seismicity are not yet established across projects.
Energy and storage · Climate and environmentEnhanced rock weathering
Also: Enhanced weathering, ERW, Rock dust spreadingEnhanced rock weathering spreads finely crushed silicate rock, such as basalt, on farmland so that it dissolves and locks CO2 into carbonate. Field trials show measurable removal and some yield gains, but removal is mostly calculated rather than measured, and estimates of scale and cost vary widely.
Climate and environment · Food and agricultureEnvironmental DNA monitoring
Also: eDNA, Environmental DNA (eDNA), Airborne eDNAEnvironmental DNA (eDNA) monitoring detects species from traces of DNA shed into water, soil or air, so surveyors do not have to catch or see the animals. It is used as a survey method for great crested newts in England, but false positives, false negatives and unreliable abundance estimates limit its use.
Sensors, imaging and electronic skin · Climate and environment · Biotechnology and synthetic biologyEvent-based (neuromorphic) cameras
Also: Event cameras, Dynamic vision sensors, Neuromorphic vision sensorsEvent-based cameras have pixels that report only when the brightness at that pixel changes, instead of recording full frames at a fixed rate. This gives very fast response, a wide range of brightness that a camera can handle, and low data output, and it needs new software to use well.
Sensors, imaging and electronic skin · AI and autonomous agentsExtreme ultraviolet (EUV) lithography
Also: EUV lithography, EUV, High-NA EUVExtreme ultraviolet (EUV) lithography prints the finest features on the most advanced chips, using 13.5 nm light made from tin plasma and optics built by ASML, which is the only maker of these machines. Intel reports that High-NA systems are in high-volume manufacturing for a subset of processors at one chipmaker, but cost, source power and a single supplier remain the main limits.
Photonics and optical computing · Advanced manufacturingFlow batteries
Also: Redox flow batteries, Vanadium redox flow batteries, VRFBFlow batteries store energy in liquid electrolytes kept in tanks and pumped past electrochemical cells to charge and discharge. The vanadium version has reached utility scale in China, where a 100 MW / 400 MWh installation was reported as connected to the grid in 2022, but system cost, efficiency and long-term durability are still being established.
Energy and storageFocused ultrasound for the brain
Also: Transcranial focused ultrasound, tFUS, Low-intensity focused ultrasound neuromodulationFocused ultrasound sends sound waves through the skull to a small target in the brain. A high-intensity version is approved to destroy tissue for essential tremor, while low-intensity versions that change brain activity are still in early human research.
Neurotechnology and human augmentation · Medical technology and bioelectronicsFusion energy
Also: Nuclear fusion, Fusion powerFusion energy joins light atoms to release energy, the process that powers the Sun. Laser experiments at the US National Ignition Facility have produced more fusion energy than the laser energy delivered to the target, and magnetic machines have set energy records. No fusion plant yet supplies net electricity to a grid.
Energy and storageGene drive mosquitoes
Also: Gene drive, CRISPR gene drive mosquitoes, Population-suppression gene driveGene drive mosquitoes are genetically edited mosquitoes designed to pass a population-reducing change to most of their offspring, with the aim of suppressing the malaria-carrying Anopheles population. The work so far is laboratory-based. A 2025 field programme in Burkina Faso, which used non-gene-drive modified mosquitoes, was halted by the government.
Biotechnology and synthetic biology · Climate and environmentGene therapy for inherited deafness
Also: OTOF gene therapy, Otoferlin gene therapy, DB-OTOGene therapy delivers a working copy of the OTOF gene into the inner ear of children whose deafness is caused by OTOF faults. Small trials reported hearing gains in most treated children, and the FDA granted accelerated approval to Regeneron's Otarmeni in April 2026.
Biotechnology and synthetic biology · Medical technology and bioelectronicsGene-edited crops
Also: Genome-edited crops, CRISPR-edited crops, Precision-bred cropsGene-edited crops are plants changed with precise tools such as CRISPR-Cas9, which can alter a plant's own genes. A 2017 lab study showed the approach can change plant chemistry, and the UK Genetic Technology (Precision Breeding) Act 2023 created a separate legal route for precision-bred plants in England. Rules differ widely between countries.
Food and agriculture · Biotechnology and synthetic biologyGene-edited livestock
Also: Gene-edited animals, Genome-edited livestock, Gene-edited pigs and cattleFarm animals with targeted gene edits have reached regulatory decisions. FDA approved a PRRS-resistant pig in 2025 and made a low-risk determination for heat-tolerant cattle in 2022, but broad sales depend on export-market approvals and public acceptance.
Food and agriculture · Biotechnology and synthetic biologyGene-edited pig organ xenotransplantation
Also: Pig organ xenotransplantation, Pig-to-human xenotransplantation, Pig kidney xenotransplantationXenotransplantation means transplanting organs from one species into another, and gene-edited pigs are the main candidate source of donor kidneys. Pig kidneys have functioned for up to 61 days in brain-dead recipients and for a small number of living patients. One peer-reviewed living case reported 271 days of dialysis independence. Long-term results and controlled trials are still needed.
Biotechnology and synthetic biology · Medical technology and bioelectronicsHigh-density neural probes
Also: Neuropixels, Neuropixels probe, Silicon neural probesHigh-density neural probes are thin silicon shanks with hundreds or thousands of recording sites, such as Neuropixels, that record many individual neurons at once. In mice and rats they have followed the same neurons for more than two months, while in people they have so far been used mainly during brain surgery, where recording yield and probe durability remain limits.
Neurotechnology and human augmentation · Medical technology and bioelectronicsHollow-core optical fibre
Also: Hollow-core fiber, Hollow core fibre, Air-core fibreHollow-core optical fibre guides light through a central air channel instead of solid glass, which can mean lower loss and lower delay per kilometre. A 2025 research paper reported a measured loss of 0.091 dB/km, and Microsoft says the technology is already in use in some Azure regions, but it is not yet a proven commercial product at scale.
Photonics and optical computingHoverboards
Also: Hover boards, Self-balancing boards, Levitating boardsA complete guide to wheeled hoverboards, magnetic levitation and flying platforms: what has been demonstrated, what each approach requires, and what remains speculative.
Experimental cross-disciplinary systems · Robotics and artificial muscles · Advanced materials and metamaterialsHumanoid robots
Also: Humanoid robotics, Bipedal humanoid robotsHumanoid robots are machines built roughly in the shape of a person, with two legs and two arms. Learned walking controllers have been shown outdoors, and companies plan factory use, but the sources reviewed here do not show useful work at scale.
Robotics and artificial muscles · AI and autonomous agentsHydrogen aircraft
Also: Hydrogen aviation, Hydrogen-electric aircraft, Hydrogen fuel-cell aircraftHydrogen aircraft would use hydrogen either in a fuel cell that drives electric propellers or in a modified gas turbine. Engine and fuel-cell tests, an uncrewed drone flight and airport ground trials have taken place, but no hydrogen passenger aircraft has entered service and the climate benefit depends on how the hydrogen is made.
Energy and storage · Climate and environmentHyperspectral imaging
Also: Imaging spectroscopy, Hyperspectral camerasHyperspectral imaging records the light reaching each point in hundreds of narrow wavelength bands, so it can separate materials that look the same to a normal colour camera. Two hyperspectral Earth-observation satellites are in orbit and food-sorting systems have been tested on industrial lines, while crop disease detection and medical diagnosis are still mostly at research stage.
Photonics and optical computing · Sensors, imaging and electronic skin · Food and agricultureIn vivo gene editing
Also: In-vivo genome editing, Systemic CRISPR therapy, In-body gene editingIn vivo gene editing delivers editing machinery into the body so that it changes DNA inside a person's own cells. A phase 3 trial of an investigational in vivo CRISPR treatment and a phase 1 base-editing study now report clinical results. The approach has so far been tested on only a few gene targets, and the phase 1 base-editing study delivers its editor to the liver.
Biotechnology and synthetic biology · Medical technology and bioelectronicsIn-space manufacturing
Also: In-orbit manufacturing, Space manufacturing, In-space productionIn-space manufacturing means making, repairing or recycling parts and materials in orbit rather than launching everything from Earth. Early results include optical fibre drawn on the International Space Station, a small semiconductor crystal grown on the China Space Station, and a pharmaceutical crystal form made on a commercial capsule. Most results are reported by the organisations that ran the experiments, only some have been published in peer-reviewed journals, and none has yet been shown to work as a repeatable production process.
Space and aerospace · Advanced manufacturing · Advanced materials and metamaterialsIn-space servicing and assembly
Also: Orbital shipyards, On-orbit assembly, On-orbit servicingIn-space servicing and assembly means building, repairing or upgrading spacecraft in orbit rather than on the ground. Assembly from launched modules is established through the International Space Station, while robotic servicing is only beginning to fly and robotic construction from raw material remains at test or proposal stage.
Space and aerospace · Robotics and artificial muscles · Advanced manufacturingIndustrial steelmaking
Also: Steel production, Bessemer process, Basic oxygen steelmakingIndustrial steelmaking turns molten iron into steel by removing carbon and other impurities. The main methods date from the Bessemer process of 1856 and the open-hearth furnace, and today's routes are the basic oxygen furnace and the electric arc furnace.
Advanced materials and metamaterials · Advanced manufacturingInsect protein farming
Also: Insect farming, Edible insect farming, Black soldier fly farmingInsect protein farming rears insects such as black soldier fly and yellow mealworm on organic side-streams and processes the larvae into protein and fat for feed and, more rarely, food. Feed use is permitted in the EU, and EFSA has found dried yellow mealworm safe as a food under set conditions. Ynsect, a French producer, went into liquidation in December 2025, so the business case is unproven.
Food and agricultureIron-air batteries
Also: Aqueous iron-air batteries, Multi-day energy storage, 100-hour grid batteriesIron-air batteries are a long-duration storage design that uses iron, oxygen from the air and a water-based electrolyte, aimed at delivering power for days rather than hours. In a 2025 California Energy Commission report, kilowatt-scale prototype modules discharged for more than 100 hours under controlled tests, but round-trip efficiency is not public and no multi-day commercial plant has yet been shown to operate.
Energy and storageJet suits and jetpacks
Also: Jet suit, Jetpack, Personal flight suitJet suits and jetpacks are wearable frames that carry small jet engines, letting a trained person fly for a few minutes. Trials by an air ambulance service and a navy show the idea can work, but short flight times, high cost, noise and unsettled rules keep use niche.
Robotics and artificial muscles · Experimental cross-disciplinary systemsLab-grown red blood cells
Also: Lab-grown blood, Stem cell-derived red blood cells, Cultured red blood cellsLab-grown red blood cells are made from stem cells as a possible future transfusion product. The UK RESTORE trial has completed its final mini-dose transfusions and is closed to recruitment; results are expected in late 2026 or early 2027. Whether manufactured cells survive longer than donated cells is not yet known, and producing enough cells affordably for routine care remains a major challenge.
Biotechnology and synthetic biology · Medical technology and bioelectronicsLaser and robotic weeding
Also: Laser weeding, Robotic weeding, Precision weedingRobots that weed with lasers, targeted sprays or mechanical tools aim to reduce the blanket herbicide applied to crops. Field trials show strong weed control from lasers on young weeds and substantial herbicide savings from targeted spraying in some trials, but the savings depend heavily on weed pressure and the independent evidence is still thin.
Food and agriculture · Robotics and artificial musclesLaser communication links
Also: Free-space optical communication, FSOC, Optical communicationsLaser communication links send data as modulated infrared light between spacecraft, aircraft and ground stations, instead of radio waves. NASA has shown 200 Gbps from a small satellite to the ground and 267 Mbps from deep space, but clouds and very precise pointing remain the main practical limits.
Photonics and optical computing · Space and aerospaceLaser-written glass data storage
Also: Project Silica, 5D optical data storage, Laser-written glass archive storageLaser-written glass data storage encodes information as tiny marks inside blocks of glass using femtosecond lasers. Microsoft's 2026 Nature paper reports a system that could hold about 4.8 TB on a 120 mm square glass plate, but the lifetime claims of more than 10,000 years rest on accelerated tests and extrapolation, and no commercial product has been announced.
Experimental cross-disciplinary systems · Photonics and optical computingLead-acid batteries
Also: Lead-acid battery, Lead-acid accumulator, Planté batteryLead-acid batteries store electricity in a reversible chemical reaction between lead-based plates in dilute sulphuric acid. Gaston Planté built the first practical rechargeable version in 1859, and the design was later used to start petrol engines and power car lighting.
Energy and storageLegged robots
Also: Quadruped robots, Quadrupedal robots, Four-legged robotsFour-legged robots walk over stairs, mud, rubble and other rough ground where wheels struggle, and makers now sell them for inspection work at industrial sites. Learned control software has made them more robust on uneven terrain, but Spot's battery life of about 90 minutes and payload of about 14 kg still limit what a robot can do on a mission.
Robotics and artificial musclesLi-Fi (light-based wireless networking)
Also: LiFi, Light fidelity, Visible light communication (VLC)Li-Fi sends data by rapidly switching the light from LEDs or lasers, and the IEEE 802.11bb light-communications standard was approved in 2023. Single-emitter laboratory links have exceeded 9 Gb/s over short distances, but the link needs an unobstructed path, and the uplink from small devices remains a design challenge.
Photonics and optical computingLithium-ion batteries
Also: Li-ion batteries, Lithium-ion cells, Li-ion rechargeable batteriesLithium-ion batteries store and release electricity by moving lithium ions between two electrodes, and they power electric cars. Their cost and energy density keep changing, but fire risk, dependence on nickel-containing chemistries and recycling that is still developing remains an open limit.
Energy and storage · Advanced materials and metamaterialsLow-boom supersonic aircraft
Also: Low-boom aircraft, Quiet supersonic aircraft, Supersonic passenger aircraftLow-boom supersonic aircraft aim to fly faster than sound while making the sonic boom heard on the ground much quieter. NASA's X-59 research aircraft has flown supersonically, but no passenger aircraft has yet shown quiet overland flight, certification or airline economics.
Experimental cross-disciplinary systems · Energy and storageLunar resource extraction
Also: In-situ resource utilisation (ISRU), Lunar ISRU, Lunar ice miningLunar resource extraction means producing oxygen, water and metals from lunar regolith and ice, so that missions need to launch less material from Earth. Oxygen has been made from simulated lunar soil in Earth tests, and water has been detected remotely near the Moon's south pole, but no lunar extraction has yet been shown on the Moon.
Space and aerospace · Advanced manufacturingMagnetic levitation
Also: Maglev, Magnetic suspension, Superconducting levitationMagnetic levitation uses magnetic forces to support an object without contact. Maglev trains and laboratory demonstrations show that it works, but stable support usually depends on a purpose-built track or supporting structure, so it is not the same as a free-floating board.
Advanced materials and metamaterials · Energy and storage · Experimental cross-disciplinary systemsMaking oxygen and fuel on Mars
Also: Mars in-situ resource utilisation, Mars ISRU, MOXIENASA's MOXIE instrument on the Perseverance rover made oxygen from the Martian atmosphere over 16 runs, reaching 12 grams per hour at its most efficient. Making methane fuel and extracting water on Mars, and scaling oxygen production for crewed missions, remain at model, proposal or concept stage.
Space and aerospace · Energy and storageMechanical metamaterials
Also: Architected materials, Engineered mechanical metamaterialsMechanical metamaterials get their properties mainly from a carefully designed internal structure rather than from the material they are made of. Lab examples include foams that expand sideways when stretched and ultralight lattices with high stiffness, but these are still at laboratory scale.
Advanced materials and metamaterialsMetal additive manufacturing
Also: Metal 3D printing, Metal AM, Laser powder bed fusionMetal additive manufacturing builds metal parts layer by layer, most often by using a laser to melt fine metal powder. It is already in production for some aerospace parts, but flaws inside printed metal, slow qualification and limited data for many alloys still stop it being used for every critical component.
Advanced manufacturing · Advanced materials and metamaterialsMetasurface optics and flat lenses
Also: Metasurfaces, Metalenses, Flat opticsMetasurfaces are flat layers patterned with structures smaller than the wavelength of light, which bend and focus light in place of curved glass. Research metalenses have now focused the full visible spectrum to one point, but they are research prototypes, and the sources reviewed here give no verified commercial performance figures.
Photonics and optical computing · Advanced materials and metamaterialsMicroLED displays
Also: Micro-LED displays, µLED displays, uLED displaysMicroLED displays use arrays of microscopic light-emitting diodes as pixels, so each pixel makes its own light. Laboratory results are promising, but moving millions of tiny chips onto a screen with near-zero defects is the main manufacturing barrier, and the technology has so far reached commercial use mainly in large commercial and professional screens.
Photonics and optical computingMulti-cancer early detection blood tests
Also: Multi-cancer early detection (MCED) tests, MCED blood tests, Galleri testMulti-cancer early detection (MCED) blood tests look for signals from many cancer types in one sample. The main commercial example, GRAIL's Galleri, is under US regulatory review, and the trial evidence so far is mixed: the UK NHS-Galleri trial missed its primary endpoint, and whether earlier detection reduces deaths is not yet shown.
Medical technology and bioelectronics · Biotechnology and synthetic biologyMycelium composites
Also: Fungal composites, Mycelium-based composites, Mycelium bio-compositesMycelium composites are light materials made by growing fungal threads through agricultural or wood waste and then drying the result in a mould. Laboratory studies show workable stiffness, fire screening results and shaping options, but strength, moisture resistance and environmental benefit depend on the specific formulation and use.
Advanced materials and metamaterials · Advanced manufacturing · Biotechnology and synthetic biologyNeuromorphic computing chips
Also: neuromorphic processors, brain-inspired chips, spiking neural network hardwareNeuromorphic chips are processors designed around ideas from the brain, such as many simple neurons that communicate with short spikes and memory placed right next to computation. Research chips and large research systems exist and report large energy savings on some tasks under specific test conditions, but they are not yet a mainstream alternative to GPUs.
AI and autonomous agentsNeutral-atom quantum computers
Also: Neutral-atom quantum computing, Atom-array quantum computers, Optical-tweezer quantum computersNeutral-atom quantum computers hold individual atoms in optical tweezers and use their internal states as qubits, with laser-driven links between neighbouring atoms. Since 2023, research groups have reported high-fidelity two-qubit gates, small logical-qubit processors and arrays of thousands of atoms, but no neutral-atom machine has yet run a large, error-corrected calculation.
Quantum technologiesNitrogen-fixing cereals
Also: Nitrogen-fixing crops, Biological nitrogen fixation in cereals, Nitrogen-fixing maizeNitrogen-fixing cereals would take nitrogen from the air through engineered plants or root-associated microbes, reducing the need for synthetic fertiliser. Some commercial microbial products are sold for maize, but their field results vary, and engineering cereals to fix nitrogen themselves has so far only reached early laboratory steps.
Food and agriculture · Biotechnology and synthetic biology · Climate and environmentNuclear space propulsion and power
Also: Nuclear-powered spacecraft, Space nuclear power, Space nuclear propulsionNuclear energy already supplies electricity on some spacecraft through radioisotope generators, and one fission reactor flew in Earth orbit in 1965. Nuclear thermal and nuclear electric propulsion have been tested on the ground or planned, but have not yet flown, and NASA's planned SR-1 Freedom mission targets a launch in late 2028.
Space and aerospace · Energy and storageOcean alkalinity enhancement
Also: OAEOcean alkalinity enhancement adds alkaline material to seawater so that the sea takes up more carbon dioxide from the air. Small field trials and early carbon credits exist, but the removal in those credits was calculated with models rather than measured, ecological effects depend on the material used, and the legal framework is still being developed.
Climate and environmentOcean thermal energy conversion
Also: OTEC, Ocean thermal energyOcean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) runs a heat engine on the temperature difference between warm surface seawater and cold deep seawater. Net electricity was reported at small scale in a 1979 offshore test. The most recent reported result is electrical output from short 2026 sea trials of a 20 kW-class prototype, but no long-duration offshore plant has yet been reported.
Energy and storage · Climate and environmentOptical atomic clocks
Also: Optical clocks, Optical lattice clocks, Optical frequency standardsOptical atomic clocks keep time by counting the oscillations of light that atoms or ions absorb, which occur at much higher frequencies than the microwaves used by today's caesium standard. Laboratory systems now report systematic uncertainties near 10⁻¹⁸, and the BIPM is preparing a redefinition of the SI second based on optical transitions, with CGPM adoption anticipated in 2030 or later.
Quantum technologies · Sensors, imaging and electronic skinOptical interconnects and co-packaged optics
Also: Co-packaged optics, CPO, Optical I/OOptical interconnects carry data between chips, switches and racks as light rather than electrical current. Co-packaged optics (CPO) places the optical engines inside the same package as the switch or processor, which shortens the electrical links and may reduce power per bit, but the approach is still in early industrial use.
Photonics and optical computing · AI and autonomous agentsOptogenetics
Also: Optogenetic control, Optogenetic gene therapyOptogenetics uses light-sensitive proteins, introduced into cells by genetic modification, to switch those cells on or off with light. It began as a laboratory tool for controlling neurons, and its human use so far is early-stage, including a single-patient report of partial vision recovery in 2021.
Neurotechnology and human augmentation · Biotechnology and synthetic biologyOrbital data centres
Also: Space data centres, Orbital compute, Space-based data centresOrbital data centres are proposed computers in orbit, powered by sunlight and cooled by radiators that face deep space. A few small flight demonstrations have been reported, but no independently verified commercial orbital data centre has yet shown sustained service or a competitive cost.
Space and aerospace · AI and autonomous agentsOrgan and tissue cryopreservation
Also: Organ vitrification, Tissue vitrification, Organ banking by vitrificationVitrification cools tissue into a glass-like solid without ice, using high concentrations of cryoprotectants, and nanowarming heats it back evenly with magnetic nanoparticles. Vitrified eggs and embryos are used in fertility clinics, and vitrified rat kidneys have worked after transplant, but the sources reviewed here report no human-sized organ banked and transplanted this way.
Biotechnology and synthetic biology · Medical technology and bioelectronicsOrgan-on-a-chip
Also: Organ chips, Organs-on-chips, Microphysiological systemsOrgan-on-a-chip devices are small plastic chips with tiny fluid channels lined with living human cells, built to copy how a tissue such as lung or liver behaves. They are used in drug research to test effects on human cells and are being considered by regulators as a partial alternative to some animal tests.
Biotechnology and synthetic biology · Medical technology and bioelectronicsPassive daytime radiative cooling
Also: PDRC, Daytime radiative cooling, Sub-ambient radiative coolingPassive daytime radiative cooling uses surfaces that reflect almost all sunlight while giving off heat as infrared light that escapes through the atmosphere into space. Laboratory and rooftop tests have cooled surfaces several degrees below the surrounding air in full sun without using electricity.
Advanced materials and metamaterials · Climate and environmentPerennial grains
Also: Perennial grain crops, Kernza, Perennial ricePerennial grains are cereal crops that live for several years and regrow from the same roots, so farmers do not have to replant them every season. Kernza and perennial rice are the best-documented examples, but yields tend to fall as stands age and soil carbon gains have not been shown at scale.
Food and agriculture · Climate and environmentPeripheral nerve interfaces
Also: Nerve interfaces, Peripheral nerve electrodes, Regenerative peripheral nerve interfaces (RPNIs)Electrodes placed on or in nerves outside the brain and spinal cord can pick up a person's movement signals to control a prosthetic limb, and can send electrical pulses that the nerve reads as touch or pressure. Human studies so far are small, with one to four participants each, and the sources reviewed here do not report an approved nerve interface device.
Neurotechnology and human augmentation · Medical technology and bioelectronicsPerovskite-silicon tandem solar cells
Also: Perovskite-on-silicon tandem, Perovskite/silicon tandem solar cells, Monolithic perovskite-silicon tandemsPerovskite-silicon tandem solar cells stack a thin perovskite layer on top of a conventional silicon cell so that each layer captures a different part of sunlight. Certified laboratory cells have passed the efficiency limit of single-junction silicon, a certified 60 cm² device reached 28.9% in 2025, and first commercial modules shipped in 2024, but long-term outdoor durability is still being proven.
Energy and storagePetroleum refining
Also: Oil refining, Crude oil refiningPetroleum refining separates crude oil into fractions and changes their molecules to make petrol, diesel, jet fuel and lubricating oils. Its key steps ran from early kerosene stills to catalytic cracking in the 1930s. EPA reports that refinery sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide emissions have fallen since 2000.
Energy and storage · Advanced manufacturingPhotonic computing for AI
Also: Optical computing for AI, Optical neural networks, Photonic AI acceleratorsPhotonic computing uses light, rather than electrical signals, to carry out some of the matrix calculations used in AI. Laboratory chips have run small neural networks and a packaged optical accelerator, but the sources reviewed here do not show that photonic chips outperform electronic hardware on real AI workloads.
Photonics and optical computing · AI and autonomous agentsPhotonic integrated circuits
Also: Photonic ICs, PICs, Silicon photonics chipsPhotonic integrated circuits put lasers, waveguides, modulators and detectors on a single chip so that light, rather than only electricity, carries and processes signals. Silicon photonics has established foundry access, and Broadcom's 2025 co-packaged optics switch uses silicon photonics engines. Thin-film lithium niobate and indium phosphide serve other functions.
Photonics and optical computing · Advanced manufacturingPhotonic quantum computers
Also: Photonic quantum computing, Optical quantum computers, Light-based quantum computersPhotonic quantum computers use single particles of light, photons, as qubits and move them through chips and optical fibre. Companies such as Xanadu, PsiQuantum and Quandela have reported working prototypes and chip-level component results, but photon loss is a major barrier to building error-corrected machines at useful scale.
Quantum technologies · Photonics and optical computingPlanetary defence
Also: Planetary defense, Asteroid deflection, Asteroid impact mitigationPlanetary defence means finding asteroids that could hit Earth early enough to act, then changing their path. NASA's DART mission showed in 2022 that a spacecraft impact can measurably change the orbit of a small asteroid moon, but no system is in place yet to find and deflect a dangerous object on demand.
Space and aerospacePlant microbial fuel cells
Also: Plant-microbial fuel cell, PMFC, Soil microbial fuel cellPlant and soil microbial fuel cells harvest small electrical currents from microbes that live around plant roots or in soil. Published studies since 2008 report small outputs. Later work from 2024 and 2026 describes longer runs and sensor use, but its full results could not be checked, so its figures are treated as unverified.
Energy and storage · Sensors, imaging and electronic skin · Food and agriculturePost-quantum cryptography
Also: PQC, Quantum-safe cryptography, Quantum-resistant cryptographyPost-quantum cryptography is a set of new encryption and signature methods designed to stay secure if large quantum computers are built. NIST finalised its first three standards in August 2024, and governments such as the UK have set migration targets running to 2035.
Quantum technologies · Experimental cross-disciplinary systemsPrecision fermentation
Also: Biomanufacturing of animal-identical proteins, Animal-free dairy protein fermentation, Recombinant food proteinsPrecision fermentation uses microorganisms engineered to make specific animal proteins, such as whey protein, without farmed animals. The FDA's public GRAS notice inventory records 'no questions' responses for some fermentation-made beta-lactoglobulin ingredients with stated food uses. Lab-scale work has also produced recombinant casein at low titre. Evidence on cost and scale-up is still limited.
Food and agriculture · Biotechnology and synthetic biologyPrecision livestock farming
Also: PLFPrecision livestock farming uses sensors, cameras and software to monitor individual farm animals, for example to flag heat, illness or milking readiness. Heat-detection collars have device-level validation studies, but one review finds the claimed welfare benefits of wider monitoring largely unproven. A feed additive used to cut dairy methane is under a new EU safety review.
Food and agriculture · Sensors, imaging and electronic skinPrecision machine tools and interchangeable parts
Also: Machine tools, Interchangeable parts, American system of manufacturingPrecision machine tools cut metal to set sizes, and standard gauges and threads let separately made parts fit together. Late eighteenth and early nineteenth century work on boring cylinders, screw threads and interchangeable parts made steam engines, and later cars, practical to build in quantity.
Advanced manufacturingProtein made from air and electricity
Also: Gas-fermented single-cell protein, Hydrogen-oxidising bacteria protein, Gas fermentation proteinGas fermentation grows microbes on hydrogen, carbon dioxide and oxygen, then dries the cells into a protein powder for food or feed. One producer reports a food approval in Singapore and a self-affirmed GRAS conclusion in the United States, but published cost and life-cycle studies depend heavily on low-carbon electricity and are mostly modelled rather than measured at scale.
Food and agriculture · Biotechnology and synthetic biology · Climate and environmentQuantum annealing
Also: Quantum annealer, Quantum annealing processorQuantum annealing uses special-purpose quantum hardware, such as D-Wave's annealers, to search for low-energy answers to optimisation and simulation problems. Whether these machines beat the best classical methods is still disputed: early tests found no clear speed-up, and a 2025 claim of beyond-classical simulation has been challenged by classical researchers.
Quantum technologies · Experimental cross-disciplinary systemsQuantum error correction
Also: Quantum error-correcting codes, Logical qubitsQuantum error correction spreads information across many fragile physical qubits so that errors can be spotted and fixed. In 2024 a Google team reported a superconducting memory whose error rate fell as its error-correcting code grew, but the sources reviewed here describe memories, not useful calculations.
Quantum technologiesQuantum gravimetry
Also: Cold-atom gravimeter, Quantum gravity sensor, Atom-interferometric gravity gradiometerQuantum gravimetry uses laser-cooled atoms to measure tiny changes in gravity, which can hint at voids, water or rock structure underground without drilling. Field and airborne tests have been reported, but survey speed and the lack of head-to-head tests against conventional methods still limit practical use.
Quantum technologies · Sensors, imaging and electronic skinQuantum key distribution
Also: QKD, Quantum cryptography key exchangeQuantum key distribution (QKD) lets two parties agree a shared secret key using quantum states of light, so that interception can be detected. Field experiments have reached over 1,000 km of fibre and a satellite-to-ground link, but the UK National Cyber Security Centre does not endorse QKD for government or military use.
Quantum technologies · Photonics and optical computingQuantum memories
Also: Quantum memory, Optical quantum memory, Quantum memories for lightQuantum memories are devices that take a quantum state carried by light, hold it, and release it later. A solid-state memory has reached efficiency of up to 69%, and nuclear spin coherence has been measured for hours, but the best results come from separate experiments, and none of the sources reviewed shows a memory that combines long storage, high efficiency and high fidelity in one device.
Quantum technologies · Photonics and optical computingQuantum random number generators
Also: QRNG, Quantum random number generation, Quantum randomnessQuantum random number generators (QRNGs) turn measurements of quantum processes into random bits, and at least one smartphone has carried a chip-scale version. Whether this adds security over well-engineered classical sources is an open question, and the sources reviewed here give no public throughput figures for consumer chips.
Quantum technologies · Experimental cross-disciplinary systemsQuantum repeaters and quantum networks
Also: Quantum repeaters, Quantum networks, Entanglement distribution networksQuantum repeaters use quantum memories to store entanglement while it is passed along a chain of links, so that entanglement can reach beyond the distance that a single optical fibre allows. Small laboratory networks with two or three nodes, some linked over deployed fibre, have now been reported, but the sources reviewed here show no repeater chain yet working over long distances.
Quantum technologies · Photonics and optical computingQuantum sensors
Also: Quantum sensing, Quantum measurement devicesQuantum sensors use fragile quantum effects, such as the behaviour of single atoms or spins, to measure things like time, magnetic fields, gravity and motion very precisely. Optical atomic clocks and cold-atom systems have moved from the laboratory into early field trials, including a 2024 UK flight test of navigation components.
Quantum technologies · Sensors, imaging and electronic skinRecirculating aquaculture systems
Also: RAS, Recirculation aquaculture, Land-based closed containment fish farmingRecirculating aquaculture systems (RAS) raise fish in land-based tanks that filter and reuse most of their water. They need large amounts of energy, are costly to build, and have suffered failures and closures.
Food and agricultureRetinal prostheses and vision restoration
Also: Bionic eye, Retinal implant, Visual prosthesisRetinal prostheses are implants that use electrodes or light-sensitive chips to stimulate the remaining retina in people who have lost their light-sensing cells. The Argus II was approved by the FDA in 2013 for advanced retinitis pigmentosa, and its production was suspended in 2019, while the PRIMA implant improved central vision for most participants assessed in a 2025 trial in geographic atrophy.
Neurotechnology and human augmentation · Medical technology and bioelectronicsReusable launch vehicles
Also: Reusable rockets, Reusable launchers, Reusable booster stagesReusable launch vehicles are rockets, or rocket stages, designed to fly more than once so that hardware is not thrown away after each launch. Whether reuse saves money depends on refurbishment costs and how often each vehicle flies, and most published cost figures come from design studies or agency estimates rather than audited accounts.
Space and aerospaceRobotic fruit and vegetable harvesting
Also: Robotic harvesting, Agricultural harvesting robots, Selective harvesting robotsRobots that pick strawberries, apples, sweet peppers and other crops have moved from research prototypes into field trials and early commercial pilots. Published field trials report first-attempt success rates from about 18% to 97.1%, and occlusion, ripeness detection and picking speed remain the main limits.
Robotics and artificial muscles · Food and agricultureRolling bearings
Also: Ball bearings, Roller bearings, Rolling-element bearingsRolling bearings put balls or rollers between a moving part and its support, so the parts roll over each other instead of sliding, which reduces friction. The basic ideas were in place by 1800, but precision manufacture and mass production were still needed to confirm their value. Later work on precision ball grinding and Henry Timken's 1898 tapered roller design made rolling bearings practical for wheels and shafts.
Advanced manufacturing · Advanced materials and metamaterialsSatellite broadband constellations
Also: LEO broadband constellations, Low Earth orbit broadband, Broadband mega-constellationsLarge groups of satellites in low Earth orbit now provide home and business internet, with SpaceX's Starlink the best-documented service. Regulators have approved far more satellites than are in orbit, and astronomers and debris specialists warn about sky brightness and orbital crowding.
Space and aerospace · Experimental cross-disciplinary systemsSatellite methane detection
Also: Methane satellite monitoring, Orbital methane monitoring, Space-based methane plume detectionSatellites can spot methane plumes from large leaks at oil, gas, coal and landfill sites. Detection limits depend on instrument design, wind and surface conditions, and the sources reviewed here do not show how often detections lead to repairs.
Sensors, imaging and electronic skin · Climate and environment · Space and aerospaceSatellite navigation (GNSS)
Also: GNSS, GPS, Global navigation satellite systemSatellite navigation uses timing signals from a constellation of satellites to work out position, velocity and time almost anywhere on Earth, and it is now built into cars, phones and timing equipment. It is a mature commercial service, but its signals are weak at the ground and can be jammed or spoofed.
Space and aerospace · Sensors, imaging and electronic skinSeawater electrolysis
Also: Direct seawater electrolysis, Seawater splittingSeawater electrolysis uses electricity to split seawater directly into hydrogen and oxygen, without first removing the salt. Laboratory and small-device studies report long test runs, but no complete system has yet been shown to be cheaper, cleaner or more reliable than purifying water first.
Energy and storage · Climate and environmentSeaweed farming at scale
Also: Seaweed aquaculture, Macroalgae cultivation, Ocean seaweed farmingFarmed seaweed is already produced at scale, and it is being promoted for carbon removal and for cutting methane from cattle. The carbon claim is disputed among ocean scientists. The methane evidence is early, comes from trial results for one red seaweed, and the authors of the summary we checked call for replication.
Food and agriculture · Climate and environmentSelf-healing polymers
Also: Self-healing materials, Autonomic healing polymers, Remendable polymersSelf-healing polymers are plastics, rubbers and composites that can repair cracks or cuts, either on their own or with a trigger such as heat. Laboratory work since 2001 has shown partial to full recovery of strength in several material families. Bacteria-based concrete has reached full-scale pilots, but most systems remain at the research and prototype stage.
Advanced materials and metamaterialsSelf-monitoring infrastructure
Also: Structural health monitoring, SHM, Structural monitoringSelf-monitoring infrastructure fits bridges, tunnels, dams and buildings with sensors that record how they move, load and respond to their surroundings. Field systems now capture useful data and send timely alerts, but sensor readings do not replace inspection or prove that a structure is safe.
Sensors, imaging and electronic skin · Advanced manufacturingSilicon spin qubits
Also: Spin qubits in silicon, Silicon quantum dot qubits, Si spin qubitsSilicon spin qubits store quantum information in the spin of a single electron held in a tiny silicon structure. Recent results show two-qubit devices made in a 300 mm semiconductor foundry reaching gate fidelities above 99%, but these are small arrays and the field has not yet shown error-corrected logical qubits.
Quantum technologiesSleep neurostimulation
Also: Closed-loop acoustic stimulation, Closed-loop tACS, Slow-wave sleep stimulationSleep neurostimulation plays sounds or passes weak electrical currents into the brain, timed to the slow waves of deep sleep, to try to strengthen those waves and possibly memory. Small studies report stronger slow waves and spindles, but memory benefits have not replicated reliably, and consumer headbands have little independent testing.
Neurotechnology and human augmentation · Medical technology and bioelectronicsSmall modular nuclear reactors
Also: Small modular reactors, SMRsSmall modular reactors are fission reactors with a smaller output than conventional nuclear plants, intended to be built partly in factories. Regulators have licensed a first construction project in Canada and approved a design in the United States. The sources reviewed here give no verified operating or cost figures for these designs.
Energy and storageSmart contact lenses
Also: Smart contact lens, Electronic contact lenses, AR contact lensesSmart contact lenses are soft lenses with sensors or micro-displays built in. One sensing lens, Sensimed's Triggerfish, has US marketing authorisation to help clinicians time eye pressure checks in glaucoma, but tear glucose sensing and display lenses have only been tested in small early studies and in animals.
Medical technology and bioelectronics · Sensors, imaging and electronic skinSmart textiles
Also: Electronic textiles, E-textiles, Fibre electronicsSmart textiles are fabrics with sensors, displays, memory or batteries built into the yarn or fibre itself. Lab demonstrations from 2021 to 2026 show textile displays, sensing fibres and fibre-shaped chips, and at least one garment with fabric sensors is sold, but washing durability is still hard to compare across studies.
Sensors, imaging and electronic skin · Advanced materials and metamaterialsSodium-ion batteries
Also: Na-ion batteries, SIBsSodium-ion batteries store energy by shuttling sodium ions between two electrodes, much as lithium-ion batteries do with lithium. They use abundant materials and manufacturers now claim early mass production, but they still store less energy per kilogram than the best lithium-ion cells.
Energy and storageSoft exosuits
Also: Soft robotic exosuits, Soft exo-suits, Textile exosuitsSoft exosuits are light, textile-based wearable robots that use cables and motors to add force to the hip or ankle while a person walks. Lab studies show small immediate gains in walking efficiency and symmetry, and one soft exosuit system has reported FDA clearance for sale to stroke rehabilitation centres, but long-term clinical benefit is not yet well established.
Robotics and artificial muscles · Medical technology and bioelectronicsSoft robotic grippers
Also: Soft grippers, Soft robotic hands, Compliant grippersSoft robotic grippers pick things up with flexible, deformable materials instead of rigid metal fingers, so they can handle delicate or oddly shaped objects. The field is active in research and prototypes, but the sources reviewed here do not show wide industrial use.
Robotics and artificial musclesSolar sails
Also: Solar sail, Solar sailingSolar sails are large, very thin reflective membranes that change a spacecraft's speed or orbit using the small, steady push of sunlight rather than fuel. Japan's IKAROS (2010) and NASA's LightSail 2 (2019) showed the method works in space, but the push is very small and the sail must unfold and survive in orbit.
Space and aerospace · Advanced materials and metamaterialsSolid-state batteries
Also: Solid-state lithium batteries, All-solid-state batteriesSolid-state batteries replace the liquid electrolyte in a conventional lithium-ion cell with a solid material. The proposed benefits include higher energy density. The sources reviewed here describe materials and processing challenges that remain open, and they give no verified cost figures for commercial cells.
Energy and storage · Advanced materials and metamaterialsSolid-state lidar
Also: Solid-state LiDAR, Non-mechanical lidarSolid-state lidar measures distance with laser light using few or no large moving parts. It uses flash illumination, optical phased arrays or chip-scale FMCW. Chip results have been shown in the laboratory, but independent evidence of long-range, low-cost sensors in production is still limited.
Photonics and optical computing · Sensors, imaging and electronic skinSpace biomanufacturing
Also: Bio-ISRU, In-situ biomanufacturing, Microbial production on MarsSpace biomanufacturing uses microbes in sealed reactors to turn prepared feedstocks into useful materials, such as bioplastic, for future missions. A 2026 preprint reports laboratory production of bioplastic from simulated Mars-like inputs, but this has not been shown on Mars and the work has not been peer reviewed.
Space and aerospace · Biotechnology and synthetic biologySpace debris removal
Also: Active debris removal, Active space debris removalSpace debris removal uses spacecraft to catch dead satellites and spent rocket stages and bring them down. Companies have demonstrated approach and magnetic capture in orbit, and ESA and Japan have funded removal missions, but no removal of a derelict object has been reported yet.
Space and aerospaceSpace weather forecasting
Also: Space weather prediction, Solar storm forecasting, Geomagnetic storm forecastingSpace weather forecasting predicts solar storms, such as coronal mass ejections and flares, so that satellite, power grid and navigation operators can take protective action. Forecasts are run by agencies such as NOAA's Space Weather Prediction Center and the UK Met Office, and they are only partly reliable on arrival timing.
Space and aerospace · Sensors, imaging and electronic skinSpace-based solar power
Also: SBSP, Space solar power, Orbital solar powerSpace-based solar power would collect sunlight with large structures in orbit and beam the energy to Earth as microwaves or laser light. A small in-orbit wireless power test has been demonstrated, but no complete orbital power system has yet delivered electricity to a grid.
Space and aerospace · Energy and storageSpinal cord stimulation for paralysis
Also: Epidural spinal cord stimulation, Epidural electrical stimulation (EES), Transcutaneous spinal cord stimulationElectrical stimulation of the spinal cord can help some people with spinal cord injury move again. Implanted epidural systems have restored walking and trunk control in very small research cohorts. A non-invasive system called ARCEX was studied in a 65-person trial, and its maker states that it is FDA cleared to improve hand sensation and strength in people with incomplete cervical spinal cord injuries.
Neurotechnology and human augmentation · Medical technology and bioelectronicsSprayable RNA biopesticides
Also: Ledprona, Calantha, dsRNA spraysSprayable RNA biopesticides are double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) products that switch off a target pest's gene when the pest eats or absorbs them. Ledprona, sold as Calantha, was registered by the US EPA in December 2023 for Colorado potato beetle, but independent data on how long the spray lasts in the field, its production cost and resistance risk are still limited.
Food and agriculture · Biotechnology and synthetic biologySprings and vehicle suspension
Also: Car suspension, Vehicle suspension, Leaf springsVehicle suspension is the set of springs, dampers and linkages that connects each wheel to the body of a vehicle. It developed from carriage leaf springs into the independent systems used in most modern cars, and its job is to keep the tyres in contact with uneven roads while keeping the ride comfortable.
Advanced manufacturingStratospheric aerosol injection
Also: SAI, Stratospheric geoengineering, Solar radiation modification using stratospheric aerosolsStratospheric aerosol injection is a proposal to cool the Earth by putting reflective particles, or the gases that form them, into the stratosphere. Volcanic eruptions and climate models support the idea, but the sources reviewed describe no outdoor release for this purpose, and the best-known planned test was halted in 2024.
Climate and environmentStructural batteries
Also: Structural battery composites, Multifunctional energy-storage composites, Structural power compositesA structural battery stores electrical energy while also carrying mechanical loads, for example in a composite panel whose carbon fibres act as electrodes. Laboratory cells have reported energy densities from about 30 to 187 Wh/kg, depending on design, electrolyte and mass basis, and high stiffness, but no complete vehicle or aircraft powered by a load-bearing battery structure has been demonstrated in the sources reviewed.
Energy and storage · Advanced materials and metamaterialsSuperconducting power cables
Also: HTS power cables, High-temperature superconducting cables, Superconducting cablesHigh-temperature superconducting cables can carry large currents through compact conductors when they are kept cold. A small number of cables and fault-current limiters now run in real grids, but these are specialised links rather than a superconducting grid.
Energy and storage · Advanced materials and metamaterialsSuperconducting quantum computers
Also: Superconducting qubits, Transmon quantum processors, Superconducting quantum processorsSuperconducting quantum computers use tiny electrical circuits, cooled until they lose all electrical resistance, to store and process quantum information. Google has shown error-correction memory results on its superconducting chips, and IBM reports gate-quality figures for its own processors, but the machines are still research-scale and far from running long, useful fault-tolerant calculations.
Quantum technologiesSwarm robotics
Also: Robot swarms, Collective robotics, Multi-robot swarmsSwarm robotics coordinates many simple robots through local sensing and communication rather than a central controller. Laboratory swarms have reached 1,024 robots, while the largest drone shows, military drone programmes and warehouse fleets mostly rely on central control.
Robotics and artificial muscles · AI and autonomous agentsThe electric motor
Also: Electric motor, Electromagnetic motor, DC motorAn electric motor turns electrical energy into rotary motion using magnetic force, a principle Michael Faraday demonstrated at the Royal Institution in 1821. From Thomas Davenport's battery-powered motor of 1837 and Nikola Tesla's alternating-current patents of 1888, it now powers electric vehicles and starter motors in the form of permanent-magnet and induction designs.
Energy and storage · Advanced manufacturingThe internal combustion engine
Also: Internal combustion engine, Four-stroke engine, Petrol engineAn internal combustion engine burns fuel inside a closed cylinder to push a piston. The design developed from Lenoir's gas engine of 1860, through Otto's four-stroke engine of 1876 and Diesel's patent of 1892, with spark ignition, carburettors and magnetos added by several inventors and companies.
Energy and storage · Advanced manufacturingThe motor car
Also: Automobile, Car, Motor carThe motor car came together over more than a century from many separate inventions, from Cugnot's steam carriage of 1769 and Benz's gas-engined vehicle patent of 1886 to Ford's mass-produced Model T and today's electronically controlled cars. Electric cars have their own early history, peaking around 1900 before petrol cars took over most of the market.
Advanced manufacturing · Energy and storageThe steam engine
Also: Steam power, Newcomen engine, Watt steam engineThe steam engine turns the pressure of steam, made by heating water with fuel, into mechanical work. Thomas Newcomen's engine of about 1712 was the first practical design, and James Watt's separate condenser of 1769 cut its fuel use. Richard Trevithick's high-pressure engines, and his 1804 locomotive on the Merthyr tramroad, showed that steam could move itself. Road vehicles needed frequent refuelling, and the Locomotives Act 1865 restricted their speed.
Energy and storage · Advanced manufacturingThe wheel and axle
Also: Wheel, Wheeled vehicles, AxleThe wheel and axle lets loads roll over land instead of being dragged. The earliest wheels and wheeled vehicles are known from a few wooden wheels, pictures on pottery and tomb finds dated to the late fourth millennium BC and later, and the interpretation of that early evidence is still debated.
Experimental cross-disciplinary systems · Advanced manufacturingThermal energy storage
Also: Heat storage, Sand battery, Heat batteryThermal energy storage keeps heat in materials such as sand, bricks, rock or molten salt so that it can be used later for industrial processes or district heating. Operating systems now exist in Finland and at a steel plant in India, but most performance figures still come from the operators or from modelling.
Energy and storage · Climate and environmentThermoelectric generators
Also: Thermoelectric generator, TEG, Thermoelectric energy harvestingThermoelectric generators turn a temperature difference directly into electricity with no moving parts. Radioisotope versions have powered spacecraft and Mars rovers, while wearable and waste-heat versions remain limited by low conversion efficiency and small usable temperature differences.
Energy and storage · Advanced materials and metamaterialsThin-film flexible robots
Also: Ultrathin flexible inspection robot, Electrostatic film-actuator robotThin-film flexible robots are less than a millimetre thick and are built from flexible circuit films. They creep across surfaces and into narrow gaps using electrostatic forces, and a 2026 laboratory prototype was shown inspecting a gap and grinding and machining test workpieces, although it still depends on external high-voltage equipment.
Robotics and artificial muscles · Advanced manufacturingThin-film lithium niobate photonics
Also: TFLN photonics, Thin-film lithium niobate, Lithium niobate on insulatorThin-film lithium niobate is a chip platform in which light is guided and switched in a thin layer of an electro-optic crystal. Laboratory modulators have carried data at up to 210 gigabits per second, and the same platform makes frequency combs, but commercial foundry supply is only starting and most company performance figures have not been independently checked.
Photonics and optical computing · Advanced materials and metamaterialsTopological qubits
Also: Majorana qubits, Majorana-based qubits, Topological quantum computingTopological qubits aim to store quantum information in Majorana zero modes, which could make the stored information less sensitive to local noise. Microsoft's 2025 Majorana 1 announcement and parity-readout paper are contested, and the existence of a working topological qubit is not yet established.
Quantum technologies · Advanced materials and metamaterialsTransparent wood
Also: Optically transparent wood, Transparent wood composite, Delignified wood with polymer infiltrationTransparent wood is wood in which the light-absorbing lignin has been removed or chemically modified and the open porous structure is filled with a clear polymer, so that light can pass through. Laboratory samples reach up to about 90% total transmittance, but high haze, limits on thickness and unproven outdoor durability keep it at research and prototype stage.
Advanced materials and metamaterialsTrapped-ion quantum computers
Also: Trapped-ion quantum computing, Ion-trap quantum computers, QCCD quantum computersTrapped-ion quantum computers store each qubit in a single charged atom held in place by electromagnetic fields. Vendor-reported figures for the 98-qubit Quantinuum Helios system show two-qubit gate errors of about 8 in 10,000, but gate speed, scaling and independent verification remain open questions.
Quantum technologiesTwo-photon lithography and nanoscale 3D printing
Also: Two-photon lithography, Two-photon polymerisation, Two-photon polymerizationTwo-photon lithography uses a focused laser to harden a liquid resin only at the tiny point where two photons are absorbed together. This lets it print three-dimensional structures with features smaller than the laser's wavelength, but it remains mainly a research tool because suitable resins are scarce and the method has not been scaled to commercial volumes.
Advanced manufacturing · Photonics and optical computingVagus nerve stimulation
Also: VNS, Vagal nerve stimulation, Vagus nerve stimulatorVagus nerve stimulation sends small electrical pulses to the vagus nerve, a long nerve linking the brain with the heart, lungs and gut. Implanted systems are FDA-approved for epilepsy and for arm rehabilitation after stroke, but the evidence for depression and for rheumatoid arthritis is much less settled.
Neurotechnology and human augmentation · Medical technology and bioelectronicsVehicle brakes
Also: Automotive brakes, Car brakes, Anti-lock braking system (ABS)Vehicle brakes have moved from wooden blocks and band brakes to hydraulic, disc and electronically controlled systems over more than a century. Peer-reviewed studies link electronic stability control, which Bosch says reached the market in 1995, to fewer loss-of-control crashes, but the size of the effect is uncertain.
Advanced manufacturingVehicle safety systems
Also: Car safety systems, Passive vehicle safety, Occupant protection systemsModern cars protect people in crashes through layers of design: crumple zones that deform in a controlled way, seat belts, airbags and independent crash testing. The IIHS reports estimates, citing NHTSA and Kahane (2015), that airbags and lap and shoulder belts together reduce the risk of death in frontal crashes by 61%. These figures come from models built on crash records rather than direct measurement.
Advanced manufacturing · Medical technology and bioelectronicsVehicle steering
Also: Steering, Steering gear, Ackermann steeringVehicle steering turns the front wheels so that a cart or car follows the path its driver chooses. Its history runs from pivoting carriage axles and Ackermann geometry to steering wheels, rack and pinion gears and power assistance.
Advanced manufacturingVehicle-to-grid
Also: V2G, Vehicle to grid, Bidirectional chargingVehicle-to-grid (V2G) lets an electric car send power from its battery back to a home or the grid, not only take power in. A few UK and Dutch schemes are running, but the evidence on whether discharging speeds up battery wear is mixed, and most of it comes from lab cells or simulations.
Energy and storageVertical farming and controlled-environment agriculture
Also: Vertical farming, Indoor vertical farming, Plant factoriesVertical farming grows crops indoors in stacked layers under artificial light and controlled climate. It can produce high yields per floor area, but lighting and climate control require substantial energy. Life-cycle studies show that its climate impact depends strongly on the electricity supply, waste-heat recovery, crop and facility design; benefits in one category, such as land use, do not guarantee lower impacts in others.
Food and agricultureVulcanised rubber and pneumatic tyres
Also: Pneumatic tyre, Pneumatic tire, Vulcanised rubberVulcanisation, a process that heats rubber with sulphur, was patented by Charles Goodyear in 1844. Air-filled rubber tyres were patented by Robert William Thomson in the 1840s, and John Boyd Dunlop made a practical air-filled tyre in 1888.
Advanced materials and metamaterials · Advanced manufacturingWarehouse picking robots
Also: Robotic picking, Piece-picking robots, Item picking robotsWarehouse picking robots grab individual products from bins or shelves so that orders can be packed item by item. Amazon, Ocado and AI companies are deploying them, but the public performance figures so far come mostly from company announcements and controlled lab tests.
Robotics and artificial muscles · AI and autonomous agentsWearable ultrasound patches
Also: Stick-on ultrasound patches, Ultrasound stickers, Wearable ultrasound imagersWearable ultrasound patches are thin, stretchable devices that stick to the skin and send sound waves into the body to image or monitor blood flow and tissue. Research groups at UC San Diego and MIT have shown them working in small human studies for periods of hours up to two days, but they are still tethered to external equipment and no regulated product was found in the sources reviewed.
Sensors, imaging and electronic skin · Medical technology and bioelectronicsWireless charging roads
Also: Dynamic wireless power transfer, DWPT, In-road wireless chargingDynamic wireless charging uses coils built into a road to send electricity by magnetic induction to a compatible vehicle while it moves. Short public and test-track pilots report that the energy transfer can work, but efficiency, cost and durability over years have not been shown independently.
Energy and storage · Experimental cross-disciplinary systems